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20 January 2020 Tablets & Capsules starch, which is derived from the cassava root [9]. Some other modified starches such as corn or pea are used in combination with carrageenan for softgel applications. Alginate. Europe and North America combined account for more than 50 percent of the global algi- nate market, which is growing at a CAGR of 1 to 3 per- cent. Growth in the Asia-Pacific market is higher due to increased demand from the processed food and pharma- ceutical industries. The pharmaceutical market for alginate is consolidated, with two major suppliers that account for more than 90 percent of global market share [10]. Currently, the pharmaceutical alginate supply is suf- ficient to meet demand, and if demand should increase suddenly, suppliers focused on food-grade alginate could switch production to pharmaceutical applications, since all regulatory approvals are in place. The sole raw material for commercial-scale alginate production is brown seaweed, which is time consuming and labor intensive to cultivate. Currently, the brown seaweed supply is sufficient to meet the needs of the alginate market, and there are no issues with feedstock capacity. However, because there is a limited number of qualified suppliers and a high entry cost for new suppli- ers, alginate buyers do not have much negotiating power with suppliers. Manufacturers offering carrageenan-based soft capsules include Procaps, Ayanda, Captek, Catalent, and Euro- caps, among others. Carrageenan is produced by two species of cultured red seaweeds, kappaphycus alvarezii and eucheuma spp. Production of these seaweeds was estimated at 8.3 mil- lion tonnes in 2012 [3]. Indonesia and the Philippines are the two major producers of this raw material, which sells for approximately $1,800 per tonne [4, 5]. Climate change has the potential to affect the red seaweed supply, but suppliers are taking actions to avoid shortages. For example, the carrageenan manufacturer Cargill has committed to sourcing 60 percent of its red seaweed sustainably by 2025 [6]. The number of suppliers manufacturing pharmaceu- tical-grade carrageenan suitable for soft capsule pro- duction is limited, but it is expected that suppliers will expand and improve their product portfolios due to increased demand from end-user industries. Modified starch. Global production of modified starch was between 9 and 10 million tonnes in 2017 [7], and the import price in the European Union was $922 per tonne, which represented a 3.9 percent increase over the previ- ous year [8]. Starch has good film-forming properties and good raw material availability, which, along with its price advantage, makes starch-based soft capsules a good low- price alternative to GSCs or other vegetarian capsules. The world 's first carrageenan-free vegan softgel, Plantgels, replaces carrageenan with modified tapioca Table 2 Comparison of processing steps for GSCs versus VSCs Gelatin Modified starch Carrageenan-modified starch Film casting Fast, easy Slow, difficult, sensitive to RH Slow, easy (equipment adaptations) Polymer mass preparation specific mixing system No No Yes High temperature heated- transfer system No Yes Yes (extrusion systems can be required) Conventional die rolls Yes No No Encapsulation spreader boxes design No No Yes (some cases) Required curing step No No Yes Tray-drying (days) (oil-based capsules) + ++ + Batch-to-batch variability No Yes No Process cost $ $$ $$$ Source: Procaps